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Peer-reviewedCC BY 4.0International Journal of Molecular Sciences

A Thermophilic Bacteriophage TP-84 Surrogate System for Validating Photocatalytic and Ultraviolet Inactivation of Airborne Viruses, Including SARS-CoV-2

  • Ireneusz Sobolewski1
  • Beata Łubkowska2
  • Paweł Mazierski3
  • Anna Gołąbiewska3
  • Adriana Zaleska-Medyńska3
  • Piotr M. Skowron1
  1. 1Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308 Gdańsk, Poland
  2. 2Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Education, Gdańsk University of Physical Education and Sport, Górskiego 1, 80-336 Gdańsk, Poland
  3. 3Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308 Gdańsk, Poland
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Abstract

The airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has renewed interest in engineering controls for indoor air; photocatalytic oxidation over titanium dioxide (TiO2) under ultraviolet (UV) light is an attractive, reagent-free basis for such controls. Rational development requires a biosafe, quantifiable challenge organism usable at biosafety level 1 (BSL-1). We validated the thermophilic bacteriophage TP-84 (host Geobacillus stearothermophilus) as a surrogate for airborne viruses, characterising its stability, aerosolisation, recovery from photocatalytic supports and inactivation on TiO2 surfaces under UVA, UVC and UVA + UVC by a reference-normalised mass balance. TP-84 was stable in a simulated saliva matrix, survived ultrasonic nebulisation, and was recovered from porous ceramic supports at 66.0–91.7%. Five minutes of UV on TiO2 surfaces—UVC (254 nm, 540 mJ cm−2) or combined UVA + UVC (2040 mJ cm−2)—inactivated 87.4–89.4% and 61.6–76.5% of phage, respectively; bulk liquid was strongly protective (94.6–97.5% recovery), whereas desiccation reduced recovery to 4.3–16%. Flow-through aerosol assays provided a device test bed. Because TP-84 is a hardy, non-enveloped dsDNA virus, these values are conservative lower bounds that must not be equated with SARS-CoV-2 efficacy; validation with an enveloped surrogate and authentic virus is the next step.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{sobolewski2026thermophilic,
  title = {{A Thermophilic Bacteriophage TP-84 Surrogate System for Validating Photocatalytic and Ultraviolet Inactivation of Airborne Viruses, Including SARS-CoV-2}},
  author = {Ireneusz Sobolewski and Beata Łubkowska and Paweł Mazierski and Anna Gołąbiewska and Adriana Zaleska-Medyńska and Piotr M. Skowron},
  journal = {International Journal of Molecular Sciences},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.3390/ijms27209271},
  url = {https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/20/9271},
  note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - A Thermophilic Bacteriophage TP-84 Surrogate System for Validating Photocatalytic and Ultraviolet Inactivation of Airborne Viruses, Including SARS-CoV-2
AU  - Ireneusz Sobolewski
AU  - Beata Łubkowska
AU  - Paweł Mazierski
AU  - Anna Gołąbiewska
AU  - Adriana Zaleska-Medyńska
AU  - Piotr M. Skowron
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/01
JO  - International Journal of Molecular Sciences
DO  - 10.3390/ijms27209271
UR  - https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/20/9271
AB  - The airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has renewed interest in engineering controls for indoor air; photocatalytic oxidation over titanium dioxide (TiO2) under ultraviolet (UV) light is an attractive, reagent-free basis for such controls. Rational development requires a biosafe, quantifiable challenge organism usable at biosafety level 1 (BSL-1). We validated the thermophilic bacteriophage TP-84 (host Geobacillus stearothermophilus) as a surrogate for airborne viruses, characterising its stability, aerosolisation, recovery from photocatalytic supports and inactivation on TiO2 surfaces under UVA, UVC and UVA + UVC by a reference-normalised mass balance. TP-84 was stable in a simulated saliva matrix, survived ultrasonic nebulisation, and was recovered from porous ceramic supports at 66.0–91.7%. Five minutes of UV on TiO2 surfaces—UVC (254 nm, 540 mJ cm−2) or combined UVA + UVC (2040 mJ cm−2)—inactivated 87.4–89.4% and 61.6–76.5% of phage, respectively; bulk liquid was strongly protective (94.6–97.5% recovery), whereas desiccation reduced recovery to 4.3–16%. Flow-through aerosol assays provided a device test bed. Because TP-84 is a hardy, non-enveloped dsDNA virus, these values are conservative lower bounds that must not be equated with SARS-CoV-2 efficacy; validation with an enveloped surrogate and authentic virus is the next step.
SN  - 1422-0067
ER  -