Three-spined sticklebacks do not respond behaviorally to environmentally relevant concentrations of the toxic explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.
- 1Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany.
- 2University of Bremen, Bibliothekstraße 1, 28359, Bremen, Germany.
- 3Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany. [email protected].
Abstract
Approximately 1.6 million tons of conventional munitions were dumped in German coastal waters. Corrosion of munition shells facilitates the leakage of explosives, such as the toxic and carcinogenic 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), into the marine environment. Consequently, TNT contamination was detected in seawater, sediments, and marine organisms near munition dump sites, and is known to cause adverse effects in marine organisms. Accordingly, avoidance of contaminated areas would be advantageous for fish. We therefore hypothesized that fish respond to dissolved TNT and exhibit an avoidance reaction. To test this, we exposed three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) to environmentally relevant TNT concentrations and evaluated their behavioral response. Individual fish were placed in a behavioral test tank equipped with two hideout zones composed of artificial plants. The hideout zone occupied by the stickleback was infused with either TNT solution (100 µg/L) or control water. Behavioral readouts included the time stickleback spent in the infused hideout zone, time until the exposed hideout zone was first left, and number of transitions between hideout zones. Sticklebacks did not exhibit significant behavioral responses to environmentally relevant TNT exposure. Consequently, fish inhabiting munition dump sites may experience chronic TNT exposure, potentially increasing long-term toxicological risks.
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BibTeX
@article{willmer2026threespined,
title = {{Three-spined sticklebacks do not respond behaviorally to environmentally relevant concentrations of the toxic explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.}},
author = {Joy Willmer and Hendrik Schubert and Maj-Britt Hölzel and Niklas Stegmann and Ulrike K R Kammann and Jörn Peter Scharsack},
journal = {Ecotoxicology (London, England)},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.1007/s10646-026-03169-7},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42909699},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Three-spined sticklebacks do not respond behaviorally to environmentally relevant concentrations of the toxic explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.
AU - Joy Willmer
AU - Hendrik Schubert
AU - Maj-Britt Hölzel
AU - Niklas Stegmann
AU - Ulrike K R Kammann
AU - Jörn Peter Scharsack
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/23
JO - Ecotoxicology (London, England)
DO - 10.1007/s10646-026-03169-7
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42909699
AB - Approximately 1.6 million tons of conventional munitions were dumped in German coastal waters. Corrosion of munition shells facilitates the leakage of explosives, such as the toxic and carcinogenic 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), into the marine environment. Consequently, TNT contamination was detected in seawater, sediments, and marine organisms near munition dump sites, and is known to cause adverse effects in marine organisms. Accordingly, avoidance of contaminated areas would be advantageous for fish. We therefore hypothesized that fish respond to dissolved TNT and exhibit an avoidance reaction. To test this, we exposed three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) to environmentally relevant TNT concentrations and evaluated their behavioral response. Individual fish were placed in a behavioral test tank equipped with two hideout zones composed of artificial plants. The hideout zone occupied by the stickleback was infused with either TNT solution (100 µg/L) or control water. Behavioral readouts included the time stickleback spent in the infused hideout zone, time until the exposed hideout zone was first left, and number of transitions between hideout zones. Sticklebacks did not exhibit significant behavioral responses to environmentally relevant TNT exposure. Consequently, fish inhabiting munition dump sites may experience chronic TNT exposure, potentially increasing long-term toxicological risks.
SN - 0963-9292
SN - 1573-3017
ER -