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Peer-reviewedCC BYEnvironmental Challenges

Biophysical and anthropogenic drivers of spring dynamics in Nepal’s mid-hills: Insights from Kavrepalanchok district

  • Sajana Maharjan1
  • Kabir Uddin2
  • Yogesh Chandra Barola3
  • Sanjeev Bhuchar3
  • Madhav Dhakal3
  1. 1International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal; Corresponding author at: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal.
  2. 2United Nations University-Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), Canada.
  3. 3International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal
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Abstract

Springs are a major source of water for communities in the mid-hills of Nepal. They are drying due to environmental causes and anthropogenic pressures, putting water security and livelihoods at risk. Therefore, there is a need to understand spring dynamics in hill regions so that the water crisis could be addressed. This study investigated the biophysical and anthropogenic drivers of spring dynamics in seven municipalities of Kavrepalanchok District using about 5099 spring field data, topographic variables, vegetation conditions, building density, and road proximity. Our research demonstrates that springs are clustered mostly within the mid-elevation range of 1,400m –1,600masl. Springs which are located on the steep slopes or near roads are more vulnerable whereas those within dense forests are comparatively resilient. However, a single variable alone could not fully explain spring dynamics. Key variables affecting springs are tree canopy cover, elevation, slope, and road proximity which were also identified through logistic regression. A potential spring map was also generated, demonstrating suitable areas for spring occurrence within gentle and forested slopes. These findings could be used by policy makers and water resource planners for sustainable springshed management.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{maharjan2026biophysical,
  title = {{Biophysical and anthropogenic drivers of spring dynamics in Nepal’s mid-hills: Insights from Kavrepalanchok district}},
  author = {Sajana Maharjan and Kabir Uddin and Yogesh Chandra Barola and Sanjeev Bhuchar and Madhav Dhakal},
  journal = {Environmental Challenges},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.1016/j.envc.2026.101683},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2026.101683},
  note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Biophysical and anthropogenic drivers of spring dynamics in Nepal’s mid-hills: Insights from Kavrepalanchok district
AU  - Sajana Maharjan
AU  - Kabir Uddin
AU  - Yogesh Chandra Barola
AU  - Sanjeev Bhuchar
AU  - Madhav Dhakal
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/30
JO  - Environmental Challenges
DO  - 10.1016/j.envc.2026.101683
UR  - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2026.101683
AB  - Springs are a major source of water for communities in the mid-hills of Nepal. They are drying due to environmental causes and anthropogenic pressures, putting water security and livelihoods at risk. Therefore, there is a need to understand spring dynamics in hill regions so that the water crisis could be addressed. This study investigated the biophysical and anthropogenic drivers of spring dynamics in seven municipalities of Kavrepalanchok District using about 5099 spring field data, topographic variables, vegetation conditions, building density, and road proximity. Our research demonstrates that springs are clustered mostly within the mid-elevation range of 1,400m –1,600masl. Springs which are located on the steep slopes or near roads are more vulnerable whereas those within dense forests are comparatively resilient. However, a single variable alone could not fully explain spring dynamics. Key variables affecting springs are tree canopy cover, elevation, slope, and road proximity which were also identified through logistic regression. A potential spring map was also generated, demonstrating suitable areas for spring occurrence within gentle and forested slopes. These findings could be used by policy makers and water resource planners for sustainable springshed management.
SN  - 2667-0100
ER  -