Respiratory pathogens across rural populations: general practice patients with community-acquired pneumonia, residents, and goat farmers.
4 affiliations
- 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
- 2Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
- 3Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (Nivel), Utrecht, the Netherlands.
- 4National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands. [email protected].
Abstract
Background
Residents living near goat farms (< 2000 m) in the Netherlands have consistently shown an elevated risk of pneumonia, yet the pathogens underlying this association remain unknown. This study assessed the presence of 33 respiratory pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, across rural populations with different goat farm exposures.Methods
This cross-sectional study included general practitioner (GP)-diagnosed pneumonia patients (PP; n = 108), non-farming rural residents without pneumonia (NFR; n = 200), and goat farm workers (GFW; n = 91). Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected and analyzed by a multiplex and two additional PCR test targeting in total 12 bacteria, 20 viruses and 1 fungus. Between-group differences in detection were assessed by Fisher's exact tests. Logistic regression analyses were performed to assess associations between pathogen detection and residential proximity to goat farming and other covariates.Results
Presence of any of the examined pathogens was highest in the PP group (94.5%), followed by GFW (88.8%), and NFR (70%). The most frequently detected pathogens overall were Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and rhinovirus. Of these, M. catarrhalis and S. pneumoniae were significantly more often detected in PP, whereas Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were more frequently detected in GFW. Eight pathogens, including Coxiella burnetii, were not detected. Age, season of sampling, smoking and other covariates were significantly associated with certain bacteria and viruses. However, no associations were identified between residential proximity to goat farming and detection of specific pathogens in NFR and PP.Conclusions
Respiratory pathogens were detected in nearly all PP, while substantial proportions of positives were also observed in GFW and NFR, likely reflecting (transient) colonization rather than active infection. Detection of the examined pathogens was not associated with residential proximity to goat farms, suggesting that these pathogens do not explain the observed increased pneumonia risk among nearby non-farming residents. As a substantial proportion of the Dutch population (~ 7%) lives within 2,000 m of a commercial goat farm, and goat farming is expanding globally, further research efforts, including microbiologic diagnostics and surveillance, are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the increased pneumonia risk among nearby residents.
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BibTeX
@article{roof2026respiratory,
title = {{Respiratory pathogens across rural populations: general practice patients with community-acquired pneumonia, residents, and goat farmers.}},
author = {Inge Roof and Aniek Lotterman and Myrna M T de Rooij and Adam Meijer and Joris Yzermans and Joke W B van der Giessen and Lidwien A M Smit and Arianne B van Gageldonk-Lafeber},
journal = {Pneumonia (Nathan Qld.)},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.1186/s41479-026-00211-4},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42926196},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Respiratory pathogens across rural populations: general practice patients with community-acquired pneumonia, residents, and goat farmers.
AU - Inge Roof
AU - Aniek Lotterman
AU - Myrna M T de Rooij
AU - Adam Meijer
AU - Joris Yzermans
AU - Joke W B van der Giessen
AU - Lidwien A M Smit
AU - Arianne B van Gageldonk-Lafeber
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/25
JO - Pneumonia (Nathan Qld.)
DO - 10.1186/s41479-026-00211-4
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42926196
AB - Background Residents living near goat farms (< 2000 m) in the Netherlands have consistently shown an elevated risk of pneumonia, yet the pathogens underlying this association remain unknown. This study assessed the presence of 33 respiratory pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, across rural populations with different goat farm exposures.Methods This cross-sectional study included general practitioner (GP)-diagnosed pneumonia patients (PP; n = 108), non-farming rural residents without pneumonia (NFR; n = 200), and goat farm workers (GFW; n = 91). Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected and analyzed by a multiplex and two additional PCR test targeting in total 12 bacteria, 20 viruses and 1 fungus. Between-group differences in detection were assessed by Fisher's exact tests. Logistic regression analyses were performed to assess associations between pathogen detection and residential proximity to goat farming and other covariates.Results Presence of any of the examined pathogens was highest in the PP group (94.5%), followed by GFW (88.8%), and NFR (70%). The most frequently detected pathogens overall were Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and rhinovirus. Of these, M. catarrhalis and S. pneumoniae were significantly more often detected in PP, whereas Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were more frequently detected in GFW. Eight pathogens, including Coxiella burnetii, were not detected. Age, season of sampling, smoking and other covariates were significantly associated with certain bacteria and viruses. However, no associations were identified between residential proximity to goat farming and detection of specific pathogens in NFR and PP.Conclusions Respiratory pathogens were detected in nearly all PP, while substantial proportions of positives were also observed in GFW and NFR, likely reflecting (transient) colonization rather than active infection. Detection of the examined pathogens was not associated with residential proximity to goat farms, suggesting that these pathogens do not explain the observed increased pneumonia risk among nearby non-farming residents. As a substantial proportion of the Dutch population (~ 7%) lives within 2,000 m of a commercial goat farm, and goat farming is expanding globally, further research efforts, including microbiologic diagnostics and surveillance, are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the increased pneumonia risk among nearby residents.
SN - 2200-6133
ER -