Parallax Depth Sectioning and 3D Reconstruction in 4D-STEM
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) information is encoded in four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) through parallax between the virtual images formed at each detector pixel. In this paper we connect the encoding and retrieval of depth-dependent information in 4D-STEM to two other widely-used 3D imaging methods, tomography and light-field photography, and derive its 3D phase contrast transfer function. Viewing the 4D data as a collection of angular slices yields a collection of sinograms, providing an intuitive visual representation of the 3D information transfer. Within the small-angle approximation, tilt-corrected bright-field (tcBF) depth sectioning is equivalent to non-iterative tomographic reconstruction. Alternatively, the 4D data also can be mapped to light-field (or plenoptic) imaging, which acquires spatially resolved diffraction data in parallel using an array of lenslets. Adapting a light-field imaging algorithm, we show that tcBF depth sections can be obtained by extracting two-dimensional slices from a single four-dimensional fast Fourier transform (4D FFT) of the dataset, yielding a substantial speedup when reconstructing a large number of depth slices. These differing perspectives distinguish the geometric aspects of depth resolution from wave-optical effects that are present in phase-contrast imaging. Depth-resolved aberration-corrected bright-field (acBF) imaging yields improved 3D reconstructions compared to tcBF, removing contrast oscillations and reducing the variation in response with depth. We demonstrate acBF depth sectioning using simulated and experimental data and resolve distinct layers in stacked oxide films and nanoparticle assemblies. These non-iterative volumetric reconstructions from a single 4D-STEM dataset show promise for improved imaging of thick, weakly-scattering samples and for reconstructing low-dose acquisitions.
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BibTeX
@misc{ma2026parallax,
title = {{Parallax Depth Sectioning and 3D Reconstruction in 4D-STEM}},
author = {Desheng Ma and Chia-Hao Lee and Zixiao Shi and David A. Muller and Steven E. Zeltmann},
howpublished = {arXiv},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2610.01057},
eprint = {2610.01057},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.01057},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - Parallax Depth Sectioning and 3D Reconstruction in 4D-STEM
AU - Desheng Ma
AU - Chia-Hao Lee
AU - Zixiao Shi
AU - David A. Muller
AU - Steven E. Zeltmann
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/01
PB - arXiv
DO - 10.48550/arxiv.2610.01057
UR - https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.01057
AB - Three-dimensional (3D) information is encoded in four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) through parallax between the virtual images formed at each detector pixel. In this paper we connect the encoding and retrieval of depth-dependent information in 4D-STEM to two other widely-used 3D imaging methods, tomography and light-field photography, and derive its 3D phase contrast transfer function. Viewing the 4D data as a collection of angular slices yields a collection of sinograms, providing an intuitive visual representation of the 3D information transfer. Within the small-angle approximation, tilt-corrected bright-field (tcBF) depth sectioning is equivalent to non-iterative tomographic reconstruction. Alternatively, the 4D data also can be mapped to light-field (or plenoptic) imaging, which acquires spatially resolved diffraction data in parallel using an array of lenslets. Adapting a light-field imaging algorithm, we show that tcBF depth sections can be obtained by extracting two-dimensional slices from a single four-dimensional fast Fourier transform (4D FFT) of the dataset, yielding a substantial speedup when reconstructing a large number of depth slices. These differing perspectives distinguish the geometric aspects of depth resolution from wave-optical effects that are present in phase-contrast imaging. Depth-resolved aberration-corrected bright-field (acBF) imaging yields improved 3D reconstructions compared to tcBF, removing contrast oscillations and reducing the variation in response with depth. We demonstrate acBF depth sectioning using simulated and experimental data and resolve distinct layers in stacked oxide films and nanoparticle assemblies. These non-iterative volumetric reconstructions from a single 4D-STEM dataset show promise for improved imaging of thick, weakly-scattering samples and for reconstructing low-dose acquisitions.
ER -