Introducing the Self-Other Distinction Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ): Scale Development and Validation in a US Sample
Abstract
Self–other distinction (SOD) refers to the ability to distinguish one’s own mental states from those of others, a prerequisite for empathy and adaptive social functioning. SOD difficulties may contribute to several forms of psychopathology; however, a validated instrument capturing SOD difficulties across domains and processes is lacking. The present study reports on the development and preliminary validation of the SOD Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ) in a population-representative US sample recruited via Prolific (N = 602). Starting from 91 items, a systematic selection led to a measure consisting of 42 items covering six facets of SOD difficulties: egocentric bias, altercentric bias, and self–other confusion, each in cognitive and affective domains. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the six-factor structure with excellent fit (CFIs > .95, RMSEAs < .05), while hierarchical and bifactor models supported both a general SOD difficulties dimension and domain-specific and process-specific components. Internal consistency was satisfactory to high across subscales (McDonald’s ω = .72–.87). Convergent validity was supported through associations with the Self–Other Differentiation Scale (SODS) and the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy. Criterion validity was demonstrated through strong associations with personality dysfunctioning (LPFS-BF 2.0) and social functioning (NIH Toolbox), with the SODDQ outperforming the SODS in predictive power. Higher stress levels were associated with greater SOD difficulties, women reported higher affective altercentric bias whereas men reported higher affective egocentric bias, and older age was associated with lower SOD difficulties. This study therefore provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the SODDQ to assess SOD difficulties in a US sample.
Related
- Development and Validation of the Food Expectation Questionnaire (FEX‐Q): An Image‐Based Instrument to Assess Food‐Related Perceptions and Symptom Expectations
- Lifestyle, Dietary Habits, and Modifiable Risk Factors in Patients with Acute Pulmonary Embolism: Protocol for a Prospective Observational Study with Development and Validation of a Composite Lifestyle and Nutrition Questionnaire
- Development and psychometric validation of the sun exposure and protection questionnaire (SEPQ) in young adults: a university-based validation study
- Development and Validation of a 12-Item Form of the Participation Questionnaire for Preschoolers
- Mapping Personal Goals Linked to Honesty-Humility: Development and Validation of the GHGD Questionnaire
BibTeX
@misc{bukowski2026introducing,
title = {{Introducing the Self-Other Distinction Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ): Scale Development and Validation in a US Sample}},
author = {Henryk Bukowski and Ekaterina Pronizius and Alix Bigot and Annabel Bogaerts and Martin Horký and Dominik Golab and Claus Lamm and Patrick Luyten and Celine De Meulemeester},
howpublished = {PsyArXiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.31234/osf.io/xjgsc_v1},
url = {https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/xjgsc_v1/},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - Introducing the Self-Other Distinction Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ): Scale Development and Validation in a US Sample
AU - Henryk Bukowski
AU - Ekaterina Pronizius
AU - Alix Bigot
AU - Annabel Bogaerts
AU - Martin Horký
AU - Dominik Golab
AU - Claus Lamm
AU - Patrick Luyten
AU - Celine De Meulemeester
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/08
PB - PsyArXiv
DO - 10.31234/osf.io/xjgsc_v1
UR - https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/xjgsc_v1/
AB - Self–other distinction (SOD) refers to the ability to distinguish one’s own mental states from those of others, a prerequisite for empathy and adaptive social functioning. SOD difficulties may contribute to several forms of psychopathology; however, a validated instrument capturing SOD difficulties across domains and processes is lacking. The present study reports on the development and preliminary validation of the SOD Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ) in a population-representative US sample recruited via Prolific (N = 602). Starting from 91 items, a systematic selection led to a measure consisting of 42 items covering six facets of SOD difficulties: egocentric bias, altercentric bias, and self–other confusion, each in cognitive and affective domains. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the six-factor structure with excellent fit (CFIs > .95, RMSEAs < .05), while hierarchical and bifactor models supported both a general SOD difficulties dimension and domain-specific and process-specific components. Internal consistency was satisfactory to high across subscales (McDonald’s ω = .72–.87). Convergent validity was supported through associations with the Self–Other Differentiation Scale (SODS) and the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy. Criterion validity was demonstrated through strong associations with personality dysfunctioning (LPFS-BF 2.0) and social functioning (NIH Toolbox), with the SODDQ outperforming the SODS in predictive power. Higher stress levels were associated with greater SOD difficulties, women reported higher affective altercentric bias whereas men reported higher affective egocentric bias, and older age was associated with lower SOD difficulties. This study therefore provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the SODDQ to assess SOD difficulties in a US sample.
ER -