Chemical ecology of willows (Salix L.): ecological roles, evolutionary dynamics and phytochemical diversity
Abstract
Background: The genus Salix comprises ∼450 species that are known for rich and distinctive specialized chemistry, dominated by phenolic compounds, such as salicinoids, flavonoids and tannins, in addition to diverse volatile organic compounds. These metabolites mediate interactions with herbivores, pathogens, mutualists and the abiotic environment. Owing to their species richness, frequent hybridization, polyploidy and diverse ecological interactions, willows represent an exceptional model for studying the evolution and ecological functions of plant specialized metabolites.
Scope: We synthesize current knowledge on the ecological and evolutionary roles of willow specialized metabolites, integrating evidence from chemical ecology, metabolomics, phylogenetics and evolutionary biology. We examine how non-volatile and volatile chemistry shapes willow interactions with antagonists and mutualists and how these interactions vary across environmental gradients. We focus on evolutionary trends in willow chemistry in response to various selection pressures and explore the effects of hybridization, introgression and polyploidization on willow metabolomic profiles. We discuss emerging insights into chemical trait syndromes, metabolic constraints and the role of abiotic filtering versus biotic selection in shaping phytochemical variation in willows.
Conclusions: Willows combine extraordinary chemical diversity with high evolutionary flexibility, which is likely to drive their success across contrasting environments. Variation in their specialized chemistry emerges from the interplay between selection, imposed by herbivores, pathogens and mutualists, and environmental filtering along climatic and resource gradients. These selective forces act on both metabolite concentration and structural variation in willow metabolomes, while hybridization, polyploidy and constraints within metabolic pathways modulate both the evolutionary trajectories and the impact of willow chemistry on their ecological interactions. Advances in untargeted metabolomics and phylogenomics now enable a more holistic understanding of willow chemical strategies beyond a small set of canonical compounds. As such, willows remain a powerful model system for uncovering general principles governing the evolution, function and diversification of plant specialized metabolites.
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BibTeX
@article{volf2026chemical,
title = {{Chemical ecology of willows (Salix L.): ecological roles, evolutionary dynamics and phytochemical diversity}},
author = {Martin Volf and Priscila Mezzomo and Sofian A Renoult and Natascha D Wagner and Andrea Calvijo McCormick},
journal = {Annals of Botany},
year = {2026},
month = jul,
doi = {10.1093/aob/mcag235},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag235},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Chemical ecology of willows (Salix L.): ecological roles, evolutionary dynamics and phytochemical diversity
AU - Martin Volf
AU - Priscila Mezzomo
AU - Sofian A Renoult
AU - Natascha D Wagner
AU - Andrea Calvijo McCormick
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/07/24
JO - Annals of Botany
DO - 10.1093/aob/mcag235
UR - https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag235
AB - Background: The genus Salix comprises ∼450 species that are known for rich and distinctive specialized chemistry, dominated by phenolic compounds, such as salicinoids, flavonoids and tannins, in addition to diverse volatile organic compounds. These metabolites mediate interactions with herbivores, pathogens, mutualists and the abiotic environment. Owing to their species richness, frequent hybridization, polyploidy and diverse ecological interactions, willows represent an exceptional model for studying the evolution and ecological functions of plant specialized metabolites. Scope: We synthesize current knowledge on the ecological and evolutionary roles of willow specialized metabolites, integrating evidence from chemical ecology, metabolomics, phylogenetics and evolutionary biology. We examine how non-volatile and volatile chemistry shapes willow interactions with antagonists and mutualists and how these interactions vary across environmental gradients. We focus on evolutionary trends in willow chemistry in response to various selection pressures and explore the effects of hybridization, introgression and polyploidization on willow metabolomic profiles. We discuss emerging insights into chemical trait syndromes, metabolic constraints and the role of abiotic filtering versus biotic selection in shaping phytochemical variation in willows. Conclusions: Willows combine extraordinary chemical diversity with high evolutionary flexibility, which is likely to drive their success across contrasting environments. Variation in their specialized chemistry emerges from the interplay between selection, imposed by herbivores, pathogens and mutualists, and environmental filtering along climatic and resource gradients. These selective forces act on both metabolite concentration and structural variation in willow metabolomes, while hybridization, polyploidy and constraints within metabolic pathways modulate both the evolutionary trajectories and the impact of willow chemistry on their ecological interactions. Advances in untargeted metabolomics and phylogenomics now enable a more holistic understanding of willow chemical strategies beyond a small set of canonical compounds. As such, willows remain a powerful model system for uncovering general principles governing the evolution, function and diversification of plant specialized metabolites.
SN - 0305-7364
SN - 1095-8290
ER -