Self-medication among higher education students: prevalence, risk factors, and health information-seeking behaviours
8 affiliations
- 1NUST School of Health Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), H-12 Sector, Islamabad, 44000 Pakistan
- 2College of Computer and Cyber Sciences, University of Prince Mugrin, Madina, Saudi Arabia
- 3CMH Institute of Medical Science (CIMS), Multan, 60000 Pakistan
- 4Department of Medical Diagnostic Imaging, College of Health Sciences, Sharjah University, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- 5Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272 United Arab Emirates
- 6Irfan Suat Gunsel Operational Research Institute, Near East University, TRNC Mersin 10, Nicosia, 99138 Turkey
- 7Széchenyi István University, Egyetem Square 1, Győr, H-9026 Hungary
- 8University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract
Background: The WHO estimates that more than two-thirds of university students engage in this practice. This study aims to determine the prevalence, knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to self-medication, along with the determinants that influence these behaviors, among higher education students in Pakistan.
Methodology : A total of 1346 students participated in a cross-sectional multicenter study from across Pakistan. The data was collected using a structured 28-item questionnaire (Cronbach’s α value: 0.85 to 0.89), using a convenience sampling technique.
Results : The overall prevalence of self-medication was 59.88% among the higher education students. Self-medication was more prevalent among female students, but it was not statistically significant in AOR (64.18%, COR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.05–1.70, p = 0.008, AOR = 1.07, 95% CI 0.91–1.25, p = 0.061). Additionally, the prevalence of self-medication was higher among students aged > 21 (63.79%, COR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.20–1.98, p = 0.001, AOR = 1.18, 95% CI 1.03–1.40, p = 0.011). The health sciences students possessed a higher level of self-medication-related knowledge (M: 4.39, p < 0.001), but they demonstrated poorer self-medication practices (M: 3.53, p = 0.004) compared to non-health sciences students. Participants reported using a range of pharmacological agents for self-medication, including antibiotics (29.00%), multi-vitamins (22.00%), anti-allergics (18.00%), cold remedies (13.00%), eye drops (8.00%), nose sprays (6.00%), steroids (2.00%), and others (2.00%). Students also reported using artificial intelligence (AI), social media, and internet resources as sources for students to get knowledge regarding self-medication (13.00%), to seek advice before starting medication (9.14%), and get guidance in case of medication-related adverse effects (5.00%). Most of the participants (64.00%) reported storing 1 or more boxes of medication in their house for future use.
Conclusion: The prevalence of self-medication was high among higher education students in our study. Additionally, the students are using on digital health resources for self-medication-related practices. Our study highlights the trends in self-medication among higher education students, guiding public health policymakers regarding self-medication interventions.
Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4.
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BibTeX
@article{sami2026selfmedication,
title = {{Self-medication among higher education students: prevalence, risk factors, and health information-seeking behaviours}},
author = {Abdul Sami and Rashid Tahir and Muhammad Tariq Bakhshi and Muhammad Ahsan Javed and Dilber Uzun Ozsahin and Yasir Waheed},
journal = {BMC Public Health},
year = {2026},
month = aug,
doi = {10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Self-medication among higher education students: prevalence, risk factors, and health information-seeking behaviours
AU - Abdul Sami
AU - Rashid Tahir
AU - Muhammad Tariq Bakhshi
AU - Muhammad Ahsan Javed
AU - Dilber Uzun Ozsahin
AU - Yasir Waheed
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/08/01
JO - BMC Public Health
DO - 10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4
UR - https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4
AB - Background: The WHO estimates that more than two-thirds of university students engage in this practice. This study aims to determine the prevalence, knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to self-medication, along with the determinants that influence these behaviors, among higher education students in Pakistan. Methodology : A total of 1346 students participated in a cross-sectional multicenter study from across Pakistan. The data was collected using a structured 28-item questionnaire (Cronbach’s α value: 0.85 to 0.89), using a convenience sampling technique. Results : The overall prevalence of self-medication was 59.88% among the higher education students. Self-medication was more prevalent among female students, but it was not statistically significant in AOR (64.18%, COR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.05–1.70, p = 0.008, AOR = 1.07, 95% CI 0.91–1.25, p = 0.061). Additionally, the prevalence of self-medication was higher among students aged > 21 (63.79%, COR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.20–1.98, p = 0.001, AOR = 1.18, 95% CI 1.03–1.40, p = 0.011). The health sciences students possessed a higher level of self-medication-related knowledge (M: 4.39, p < 0.001), but they demonstrated poorer self-medication practices (M: 3.53, p = 0.004) compared to non-health sciences students. Participants reported using a range of pharmacological agents for self-medication, including antibiotics (29.00%), multi-vitamins (22.00%), anti-allergics (18.00%), cold remedies (13.00%), eye drops (8.00%), nose sprays (6.00%), steroids (2.00%), and others (2.00%). Students also reported using artificial intelligence (AI), social media, and internet resources as sources for students to get knowledge regarding self-medication (13.00%), to seek advice before starting medication (9.14%), and get guidance in case of medication-related adverse effects (5.00%). Most of the participants (64.00%) reported storing 1 or more boxes of medication in their house for future use. Conclusion: The prevalence of self-medication was high among higher education students in our study. Additionally, the students are using on digital health resources for self-medication-related practices. Our study highlights the trends in self-medication among higher education students, guiding public health policymakers regarding self-medication interventions. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-28846-4.
SN - 1471-2458
ER -