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Peer-reviewedCC BY 4.0ACS Omega

Evaluating the Environmental and Biological Safety of Phosphonium-Based Porous Liquid Systems

  • Marcin Wysokowski1
  • Tomasz Rzemieniecki1
  • Łukasz Ławniczak1
  • Kacper Sturma1
  • Adam Gorczyński2
  • Michał Niemczak1
  • Teofil Jesionowski1
  1. 1Poznan University of Technology , , Berdychowo 4 , ,
  2. 2Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , , Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8 , ,
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Abstract

Porous liquids have emerged as a promising class of advanced materials that combine permanent porosity with fluidity. They are often proposed as “green” alternatives in separations and catalysis, although their biological safety remains underexplored. Here, we present a comprehensive evaluation of the toxicity of two representative porous liquid systems based on methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide ([P1Ph3][Br]) and trihexyltetradecylphosphonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide ([P66614][NTf2]), combined with glycerol and ZIF-8, across a spectrum of biological models. Acute toxicity was assessed in microorganisms (Escherichia coli), aquatic organisms (Daphnia magna, Raphidocelis subcapitata, Artemia franciscana), plants (tomato and oat), and human dermal fibroblasts. While both materials exhibited low cytotoxicity toward human dermal fibroblasts (IC50 > 0.5 mM), notable toxicity emerged in aquatic organisms and bacteria, especially for aromatic [P1Ph3][Br]-based systems (EC50 = 1–10 mg dm–3). The studied multicomponent formulations disrupted microbial growth and inhibited germination even at low concentrations, revealing unexpected phytotoxicity. These contrasting outcomes (limited toxicity toward HDF cells, notable ecotoxicity) highlight the hidden complexity of structure-toxicity relationships in porous liquids. Our findings call for a shift from assumption to evidence in the development of so-called “green” solvents, as functionality must go hand in hand with environmental foresight.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{wysokowski2026evaluating,
  title = {{Evaluating the Environmental and Biological Safety of Phosphonium-Based Porous Liquid Systems}},
  author = {Marcin Wysokowski and Tomasz Rzemieniecki and Łukasz Ławniczak and Kacper Sturma and Adam Gorczyński and Michał Niemczak and Teofil Jesionowski},
  journal = {ACS Omega},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.1021/acsomega.6c09198},
  url = {https://pubs.acs.org/acsodf/article/doi/10.1021/acsomega.6c09198/5460552/Evaluating-the-Environmental-and-Biological-Safety},
  note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Evaluating the Environmental and Biological Safety of Phosphonium-Based Porous Liquid Systems
AU  - Marcin Wysokowski
AU  - Tomasz Rzemieniecki
AU  - Łukasz Ławniczak
AU  - Kacper Sturma
AU  - Adam Gorczyński
AU  - Michał Niemczak
AU  - Teofil Jesionowski
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/29
JO  - ACS Omega
DO  - 10.1021/acsomega.6c09198
UR  - https://pubs.acs.org/acsodf/article/doi/10.1021/acsomega.6c09198/5460552/Evaluating-the-Environmental-and-Biological-Safety
AB  - Porous liquids have emerged as a promising class of advanced materials that combine permanent porosity with fluidity. They are often proposed as “green” alternatives in separations and catalysis, although their biological safety remains underexplored. Here, we present a comprehensive evaluation of the toxicity of two representative porous liquid systems based on methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide ([P1Ph3][Br]) and trihexyltetradecylphosphonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide ([P66614][NTf2]), combined with glycerol and ZIF-8, across a spectrum of biological models. Acute toxicity was assessed in microorganisms (Escherichia coli), aquatic organisms (Daphnia magna, Raphidocelis subcapitata, Artemia franciscana), plants (tomato and oat), and human dermal fibroblasts. While both materials exhibited low cytotoxicity toward human dermal fibroblasts (IC50 > 0.5 mM), notable toxicity emerged in aquatic organisms and bacteria, especially for aromatic [P1Ph3][Br]-based systems (EC50 = 1–10 mg dm–3). The studied multicomponent formulations disrupted microbial growth and inhibited germination even at low concentrations, revealing unexpected phytotoxicity. These contrasting outcomes (limited toxicity toward HDF cells, notable ecotoxicity) highlight the hidden complexity of structure-toxicity relationships in porous liquids. Our findings call for a shift from assumption to evidence in the development of so-called “green” solvents, as functionality must go hand in hand with environmental foresight.
SN  - 2470-1343
ER  -