Composition gradients in sub-Neptunes: K2-18 b and TOI-270 d as case studies
Abstract
Structure models of sub-Neptunes commonly assume purely adiabatic interiors with distinct layers of homogeneous composition. We assess how allowing for more complex interiors with composition gradients affects the inferred internal structure and bulk compositions of the sub-Neptunes K2-18 b and TOI-270 d. We compare purely adiabatic models with distinct layers against models that include composition gradients and stable non-convective regions. We present solutions that are consistent with the observed masses, radii, and atmospheric boundary conditions. We find that composition gradients significantly increase the range of viable interior structures: For example, the interior degeneracy remains substantial even for fixed mass and radius, and the maximum hydrogen-helium (H-He) mass fraction can increase significantly: for K2-18 b by a factor of about three at a 1 bar temperature of 300 K and of about ten at 600 K, and generally by more than an order of magnitude for TOI-270 d. Composition gradients further weaken parameter correlations: for K2-18 b and TOI-270 d, the Spearman rank correlation between the H-He and iron abundances drops from ∼0.7 to ∼0.3, with a similar weakening between the H-He abundance and the rock-to-iron mass ratio. However, other correlations, such as between the H-He abundance and the water-to-rock mass ratio, persist or even strengthen and remain non-negligible. Purely adiabatic models underestimate the range of plausible compositions and overestimate the impact of more precise measurements, atmosphere models, and host-star constraints on a more accurate characterisation. We suggest that interior models of sub-Neptunes should by default include more complex interiors, such as composition gradients and non-convective regions, when using data for interpreting the planetary structure, formation, and evolution.
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BibTeX
@misc{morf2026composition,
title = {{Composition gradients in sub-Neptunes: K2-18 b and TOI-270 d as case studies}},
author = {Luca Morf and Ravit Helled},
howpublished = {arXiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2609.04318},
eprint = {2609.04318},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.04318},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - Composition gradients in sub-Neptunes: K2-18 b and TOI-270 d as case studies
AU - Luca Morf
AU - Ravit Helled
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/03
PB - arXiv
DO - 10.48550/arxiv.2609.04318
UR - https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.04318
AB - Structure models of sub-Neptunes commonly assume purely adiabatic interiors with distinct layers of homogeneous composition. We assess how allowing for more complex interiors with composition gradients affects the inferred internal structure and bulk compositions of the sub-Neptunes K2-18 b and TOI-270 d. We compare purely adiabatic models with distinct layers against models that include composition gradients and stable non-convective regions. We present solutions that are consistent with the observed masses, radii, and atmospheric boundary conditions. We find that composition gradients significantly increase the range of viable interior structures: For example, the interior degeneracy remains substantial even for fixed mass and radius, and the maximum hydrogen-helium (H-He) mass fraction can increase significantly: for K2-18 b by a factor of about three at a 1 bar temperature of 300 K and of about ten at 600 K, and generally by more than an order of magnitude for TOI-270 d. Composition gradients further weaken parameter correlations: for K2-18 b and TOI-270 d, the Spearman rank correlation between the H-He and iron abundances drops from ∼0.7 to ∼0.3, with a similar weakening between the H-He abundance and the rock-to-iron mass ratio. However, other correlations, such as between the H-He abundance and the water-to-rock mass ratio, persist or even strengthen and remain non-negligible. Purely adiabatic models underestimate the range of plausible compositions and overestimate the impact of more precise measurements, atmosphere models, and host-star constraints on a more accurate characterisation. We suggest that interior models of sub-Neptunes should by default include more complex interiors, such as composition gradients and non-convective regions, when using data for interpreting the planetary structure, formation, and evolution.
ER -