Variability in the Nutritional Adequacy of Primary School Meals in Zagreb: The Role of School Environmental Factors
- 1Department of Nutrition, Food Quality and Safety, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- 2Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Trg J. F. Kennedy 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Although investments are being made in school meals worldwide, their quality remains problematic due to financial, knowledge-related, or logistical factors. The aim of this study was to examine the nutritional adequacy of school meals in Zagreb (Croatia) and to determine whether the energy adequacy differs depending on selected environmental factors such as school location and neighborhood poverty rate, type of meal service system, staffing, menu planning, and participation in school-based nutrition initiatives and programs. Methods: The study was conducted in 14 primary schools in the city of Zagreb during the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 school years. A total of 2469 daily menus were collected (2379 breakfasts, 2376 lunches, and 2103 snacks). Menus and information on environmental factors were obtained through on-site audits, direct dialogs with staff, and school curricula. The energy and macronutrient content of school meals was analyzed using Prehrana software version 1.0 and evaluated according to national guidelines. Results: The energy and macronutrient content varied greatly among schools. In 75% of schools, the average energy and macronutrient content of breakfasts exceeded 110% of recommendations, while 70% of schools averaged less than 90% of recommendations for energy and macronutrients in lunches. Considering energy and macronutrient content, three breakfasts, 38 lunches, and one snack met all four recommendations. Among the school-level environmental factors observed, the proportion of energy-adequate meals differed significantly by kitchen type, number of on-site-prepared meals, and neighborhood poverty for lunches, as well as school garden presence for breakfasts. Conclusions: The findings reveal differences in the nutritional adequacy of school meals across primary schools in Zagreb and may help guide future improvements in school food system guidelines and practices.
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BibTeX
@article{ilic2026variability,
title = {{Variability in the Nutritional Adequacy of Primary School Meals in Zagreb: The Role of School Environmental Factors}},
author = {Ana Ilić and Ivana Rumbak and Ružica Brečić and Martina Bituh},
journal = {Nutrients},
year = {2026},
month = nov,
doi = {10.3390/nu18213709},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/18/21/3709},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Variability in the Nutritional Adequacy of Primary School Meals in Zagreb: The Role of School Environmental Factors
AU - Ana Ilić
AU - Ivana Rumbak
AU - Ružica Brečić
AU - Martina Bituh
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/11/09
JO - Nutrients
DO - 10.3390/nu18213709
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/18/21/3709
AB - Background/Objectives: Although investments are being made in school meals worldwide, their quality remains problematic due to financial, knowledge-related, or logistical factors. The aim of this study was to examine the nutritional adequacy of school meals in Zagreb (Croatia) and to determine whether the energy adequacy differs depending on selected environmental factors such as school location and neighborhood poverty rate, type of meal service system, staffing, menu planning, and participation in school-based nutrition initiatives and programs. Methods: The study was conducted in 14 primary schools in the city of Zagreb during the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 school years. A total of 2469 daily menus were collected (2379 breakfasts, 2376 lunches, and 2103 snacks). Menus and information on environmental factors were obtained through on-site audits, direct dialogs with staff, and school curricula. The energy and macronutrient content of school meals was analyzed using Prehrana software version 1.0 and evaluated according to national guidelines. Results: The energy and macronutrient content varied greatly among schools. In 75% of schools, the average energy and macronutrient content of breakfasts exceeded 110% of recommendations, while 70% of schools averaged less than 90% of recommendations for energy and macronutrients in lunches. Considering energy and macronutrient content, three breakfasts, 38 lunches, and one snack met all four recommendations. Among the school-level environmental factors observed, the proportion of energy-adequate meals differed significantly by kitchen type, number of on-site-prepared meals, and neighborhood poverty for lunches, as well as school garden presence for breakfasts. Conclusions: The findings reveal differences in the nutritional adequacy of school meals across primary schools in Zagreb and may help guide future improvements in school food system guidelines and practices.
SN - 2072-6643
ER -