Quantum dot sensors for heavy metal detection: from mechanistic design to field deployment: a review
7 affiliations
- 1Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Barcelona Spain
- 2Dr Bansi Dhar Institute Gurugram Haryana India
- 3Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering and Technology, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies Faridabad Haryana-121004 India
- 4Biosensor Lab, Department of Chemistry, BITS Pilani KK Birla Goa Campus Vasco da Gama 403726 Goa India
- 5Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith Rajasthan 304022 India
- 6Computer Science & Engineering Department, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology Sonipat 131039 India
- 7Department of Chemistry, MDU Rohtak-124001 Haryana India
Abstract
Heavy metal contamination poses a critical global health risk, affecting over 2.2 billion people and necessitating rapid, sensitive, and field-deployable detection technologies. Conventional analytical techniques such as ICP-MS and AAS, while highly accurate, remain constrained by high cost, complex instrumentation, and limited portability, restricting their use in decentralized monitoring. Quantum dots (QDs), owing to their size-tunable photoluminescence, high quantum yields, and excellent photostability, have emerged as powerful alternatives for ultrasensitive detection of toxic metal ions. This review provides a comprehensive and structured overview of QD-based sensing systems, beginning with fundamental aspects including synthesis strategies (colloidal, hydrothermal, and green routes), quantum confinement effects, and exciton dynamics governing optical behaviour. Emphasis is placed on surface functionalization approaches guided by Hard–Soft Acid–Base (HSAB) theory and chelation principles, enabling high selectivity toward target ions. Key sensing mechanisms, including fluorescence quenching and enhancement, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), and electrochemical transduction, are critically analyzed. Recent advances in hybrid nanostructures integrating QDs with graphene, metal–organic frameworks, and plasmonic materials are discussed, highlighting significant improvements in sensitivity down to picomolar levels and detection limits as low as 0.1 nM for priority contaminants such as Pb2+, Hg2+, Cd2+, As3+/5+, and Cr6+. In parallel, emerging eco-friendly alternatives, including carbon-based and heteroatom-doped QDs, are evaluated as sustainable substitutes to toxic Cd- and Pb-based systems, demonstrating competitive optical performance and improved biocompatibility. The review further examines practical considerations often overlooked, including matrix interference, reproducibility, long-term stability, and scalability. Strategies for translation from laboratory prototypes to real-world deployment are discussed, with focus on regulatory validation (IUPAC protocols, NIST standards), scalable manufacturing approaches, and cost-effective sensor design. Finally, future directions are outlined, emphasizing integration with artificial intelligence, IoT-enabled monitoring systems, and multiplexed sensing platforms aligned with ASSURED criteria. By bridging fundamental materials design with application-driven challenges, this work provides a roadmap for advancing QD-based sensors toward reliable, scalable, and commercially viable solutions for global heavy metal monitoring.
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BibTeX
@article{rathee2026quantum,
title = {{Quantum dot sensors for heavy metal detection: from mechanistic design to field deployment: a review}},
author = {Garima Rathee and Sahil Kohli and Rida Hashami and Krati Singh and Jyotsna Rathee and Barkha Rathee and Suphiya Khan},
journal = {RSC advances},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.1039/d6ra06857j},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13657092},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Quantum dot sensors for heavy metal detection: from mechanistic design to field deployment: a review
AU - Garima Rathee
AU - Sahil Kohli
AU - Rida Hashami
AU - Krati Singh
AU - Jyotsna Rathee
AU - Barkha Rathee
AU - Suphiya Khan
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/12
JO - RSC advances
DO - 10.1039/d6ra06857j
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13657092
AB - Heavy metal contamination poses a critical global health risk, affecting over 2.2 billion people and necessitating rapid, sensitive, and field-deployable detection technologies. Conventional analytical techniques such as ICP-MS and AAS, while highly accurate, remain constrained by high cost, complex instrumentation, and limited portability, restricting their use in decentralized monitoring. Quantum dots (QDs), owing to their size-tunable photoluminescence, high quantum yields, and excellent photostability, have emerged as powerful alternatives for ultrasensitive detection of toxic metal ions. This review provides a comprehensive and structured overview of QD-based sensing systems, beginning with fundamental aspects including synthesis strategies (colloidal, hydrothermal, and green routes), quantum confinement effects, and exciton dynamics governing optical behaviour. Emphasis is placed on surface functionalization approaches guided by Hard–Soft Acid–Base (HSAB) theory and chelation principles, enabling high selectivity toward target ions. Key sensing mechanisms, including fluorescence quenching and enhancement, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), and electrochemical transduction, are critically analyzed. Recent advances in hybrid nanostructures integrating QDs with graphene, metal–organic frameworks, and plasmonic materials are discussed, highlighting significant improvements in sensitivity down to picomolar levels and detection limits as low as 0.1 nM for priority contaminants such as Pb2+, Hg2+, Cd2+, As3+/5+, and Cr6+. In parallel, emerging eco-friendly alternatives, including carbon-based and heteroatom-doped QDs, are evaluated as sustainable substitutes to toxic Cd- and Pb-based systems, demonstrating competitive optical performance and improved biocompatibility. The review further examines practical considerations often overlooked, including matrix interference, reproducibility, long-term stability, and scalability. Strategies for translation from laboratory prototypes to real-world deployment are discussed, with focus on regulatory validation (IUPAC protocols, NIST standards), scalable manufacturing approaches, and cost-effective sensor design. Finally, future directions are outlined, emphasizing integration with artificial intelligence, IoT-enabled monitoring systems, and multiplexed sensing platforms aligned with ASSURED criteria. By bridging fundamental materials design with application-driven challenges, this work provides a roadmap for advancing QD-based sensors toward reliable, scalable, and commercially viable solutions for global heavy metal monitoring.
SN - 2046-2069
ER -